{"id":1021,"date":"2025-10-14T09:08:41","date_gmt":"2025-10-14T09:08:41","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/cusec.flaw.uniba.sk\/?p=1021"},"modified":"2025-10-15T19:57:14","modified_gmt":"2025-10-15T19:57:14","slug":"trojsky-kon-2-0-ako-neviditelny-kod-meni-pravidla-moderneho-vojnoveho-konfliktu","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/cusec.flaw.uniba.sk\/en\/blog\/trojsky-kon-2-0-ako-neviditelny-kod-meni-pravidla-moderneho-vojnoveho-konfliktu\/","title":{"rendered":"Trojan Horse 2.0: How Invisible Code Changes the Rules of Modern War Conflict."},"content":{"rendered":"\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>Zabudnite na tanky a st\u00edha\u010dky. Najv\u00e4\u010d\u0161ou hrozbou v modern\u00fdch konfliktoch nie je vidite\u013en\u00e1 arm\u00e1da, ale \u201evirtu\u00e1lny tr\u00f3jsky k\u00f4\u0148\u201c \u2013 nevidite\u013en\u00fd k\u00f3d, ktor\u00fd men\u00ed pravidl\u00e1 vojnov\u00e9ho konfliktu.<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Vzh\u013eadom na to, \u017ee technick\u00fd ani legislat\u00edvny pokrok pr\u00e1va nie je v\u017edy mo\u017en\u00fd pri regul\u00e1cii rast\u00faceho po\u010dtu kybernetick\u00fdch \u00fatokov p\u00e1chan\u00fdch medzi \u0161t\u00e1tmi \u201est\u00edha\u0165\u201c, medzin\u00e1rodn\u00e9 pr\u00e1vo na\u010falej poskytuje usmernenia na riadenie spr\u00e1vania \u0161t\u00e1tov v kybernetickom priestore. K\u013e\u00fa\u010dovou ot\u00e1zkou je, do akej miery by mali by\u0165 kybernetick\u00e9 \u00fatoky klasifikovan\u00e9 ako nez\u00e1konn\u00e9 pou\u017eitie sily. Hoci existuj\u00face medzin\u00e1rodn\u00e9 dohody a zmluvy medzi \u0161t\u00e1tmi sa konkr\u00e9tne nezaoberaj\u00fa kybernetick\u00fdmi oper\u00e1ciami, v\u0161eobecn\u00e9 z\u00e1sady a ustanovenia Charty Organiz\u00e1cie Spojen\u00fdch n\u00e1rodov sa \u010dasto interpretuj\u00fa tak, aby sa ich uplatnite\u013enos\u0165 roz\u0161irovala aj na vojensk\u00e9 akcie vykon\u00e1van\u00e9 prostredn\u00edctvom kybernetick\u00fdch prostriedkov.<sup>2 3<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>Tallinnsk\u00fd manu\u00e1l \u2013 ako \u201ek\u013e\u00fa\u010dov\u00fd pr\u00e1vny kompas\u201c<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Priamy kybernetick\u00fd \u00fatok je zameran\u00fd na po\u010d\u00edta\u010dov\u00e9 alebo informa\u010dn\u00e9 syst\u00e9my s cie\u013eom ich zni\u010di\u0165, ukradn\u00fa\u0165 \u00fadaje alebo ukradn\u00fa\u0165 v\u00fdpo\u010dtov\u00fa kapacitu na \u00fato\u010dn\u00e9 po\u010d\u00edta\u010dov\u00e9 oper\u00e1cie. Tak\u00e9to \u00fatoky na hardv\u00e9r, softv\u00e9r alebo \u00fadaje, ktor\u00e9 nie s\u00fa zameran\u00e9 iba na \u013eud\u00ed, predstavuj\u00fa nasadenie kybernetick\u00fdch zbran\u00ed a odzrkad\u013euj\u00fa strategickej\u0161\u00ed a de\u0161trukt\u00edvnej\u0161\u00ed z\u00e1mer. Tieto typy kybernetick\u00fdch \u00fatokov sa l\u00ed\u0161ia svojou schopnos\u0165ou a \u00fa\u010dinnos\u0165ou, pri\u010dom ich p\u00e1chatelia m\u00f4\u017eu ma\u0165 s\u00eddlo kdeko\u013evek na svete, od \u0161t\u00e1tnych nepriate\u013eov a teroristick\u00fdch organiz\u00e1ci\u00ed a\u017e po organizovan\u00fd zlo\u010din a jednotlivcov, ktor\u00ed \u00fato\u010dia na dopravn\u00e9 syst\u00e9my, elektrick\u00e9 siete, finan\u010dn\u00e9 in\u0161tit\u00facie a vl\u00e1dne webov\u00e9 str\u00e1nky.<sup>4<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Pod\u013ea Tallinnsk\u00e9ho manu\u00e1lu (\u010falej len \u201emanu\u00e1l\u201c)<sup>5<\/sup>, <strong>kybernetick\u00e1 oper\u00e1cia, ktor\u00e9 vedie k zni\u010deniu majetku, sa pod\u013ea medzin\u00e1rodn\u00e9ho pr\u00e1va pova\u017euje za \u00fatok, pri\u010dom t\u00e1to klasifik\u00e1cia z\u00e1vis\u00ed od rozsahu a n\u00e1sledkov oper\u00e1cie.<\/strong><sup>6<\/sup> \u00datok, ktor\u00fd m\u00e1 za n\u00e1sledok zni\u010denie majetku, napr. vyradenie elektr\u00e1rn\u00ed alebo syst\u00e9mov riadenia dopravy z prev\u00e1dzky. Nejde teda len o naru\u0161enie s\u00fakromia, ale o strategick\u00fd a ni\u010div\u00fd \u010din s glob\u00e1lnymi d\u00f4sledkami.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Manu\u00e1l jasne vyjadruje a definuje, \u010do sa pova\u017euje za suverenitu kybernetickej infra\u0161trukt\u00fary. Uv\u00e1dza sa v \u0148om: \u201e<em>\u0160t\u00e1ty maj\u00fa predov\u0161etk\u00fdm suverenitu nad ktorouko\u013evek kybernetickou infra\u0161trukt\u00farou nach\u00e1dzaj\u00facou sa na ich \u00fazem\u00ed a nad \u010dinnos\u0165ami spojen\u00fdmi s touto kybernetickou infra\u0161trukt\u00farou<\/em>.\u201c <sup>7\u00a0<\/sup> Manu\u00e1l 2.0 prezentuje n\u00e1zory odborn\u00edkov v ich osobnej rovine. Nie je teda z\u00e1v\u00e4znou medzin\u00e1rodnou dohodou ani ofici\u00e1lnym vyhl\u00e1sen\u00edm NATO. Projekt v\u0161ak \u0165a\u017eil z neofici\u00e1lnych pr\u00edspevkov jednotlivcov z mnoh\u00fdch \u0161t\u00e1tov a mal viac ako 50 recenzentov taktie\u017e, z\u00a0mnoh\u00fdch \u0161t\u00e1tov, \u010do viedlo k vytvoreniu dobre prepracovan\u00e9ho manu\u00e1lu.<sup>8<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>Dohovor z Montevidea o pr\u00e1vach a povinnostiach \u0161t\u00e1tov &#8211; Kontrola hran\u00edc v nehmotnom priestore<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">V s\u00falade s klasifik\u00e1ciou kybernetick\u00fdch \u00fatokov pod\u013ea medzin\u00e1rodn\u00e9ho pr\u00e1va je ich interakcia s Dohovorom z Montevidea k\u013e\u00fa\u010dov\u00e1 pre komplexn\u00e9 pochopenie ich pr\u00e1vneho v\u00fdznamu. Dohovor z Montevidea stanovuje, \u017ee na to, aby sa subjekt mohol pova\u017eova\u0165 za \u0161t\u00e1t, musia by\u0165 splnen\u00e9 \u0161tyri predpoklady: vymedzen\u00e9 \u00fazemie, trval\u00e9 obyvate\u013estvo, efekt\u00edvna vl\u00e1da a schopnos\u0165 nadv\u00e4zova\u0165 vz\u0165ahy s in\u00fdmi \u0161t\u00e1tmi.<sup>9<\/sup> Tieto krit\u00e9ri\u00e1 zost\u00e1vaj\u00fa prevl\u00e1daj\u00facimi normami medzin\u00e1rodn\u00e9ho pr\u00e1va pre \u0161t\u00e1t, ktor\u00e9 s\u00fa obzvl\u00e1\u0161\u0165 relevantn\u00e9 v pr\u00edpade, ak kybernetick\u00e9 oper\u00e1cie poch\u00e1dzaj\u00fa od subjektov usiluj\u00facich sa o uznanie \u0161t\u00e1tu a zah\u0155\u0148aj\u00fa tak\u00e9to subjekty.<sup>10<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Vzh\u013eadom na n\u00e1rast kybernetick\u00fdch \u00fatokov je be\u017en\u00e9 analyzova\u0165 tak\u00e9to oper\u00e1cie ako mo\u017en\u00e9 akty kybernetickej vojny a zodpovedaj\u00facim sp\u00f4sobom pova\u017eova\u0165 p\u00e1chate\u013eov za potenci\u00e1lnych kybernetick\u00fdch vojnov\u00fdch akt\u00e9rov. Splnenie podmienok z Montevidea upev\u0148uje status subjektu, \u010d\u00edm sa mu ude\u013euje medzin\u00e1rodn\u00e9 pr\u00e1vne uznanie jeho pr\u00e1va vies\u0165 kybernetick\u00fa vojnu popri tradi\u010dnej kinetickej vojne.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>Medzin\u00e1rodn\u00e9 pr\u00e1vo sa tak nach\u00e1dza v rozpakoch. <\/strong>Ako by sme mali klasifikova\u0165 tieto \u00fatoky: Ide o nez\u00e1konn\u00e9 pou\u017eitie sily? Hoci existuj\u00face zmluvy priamo neodkazuj\u00fa na kybernetick\u00e9 oper\u00e1cie, v\u0161eobecn\u00e9 z\u00e1sady Charty OSN sa \u010dasto uplat\u0148uj\u00fa na kybernetick\u00e9 vojensk\u00e9 akcie. St\u00e1le sa v\u0161ak zaober\u00e1me z\u00e1kladn\u00fdmi ot\u00e1zkami: Ako m\u00f4\u017eeme chr\u00e1ni\u0165 suverenitu kybernetickej infra\u0161trukt\u00fary \u0161t\u00e1tu, ak je \u00fatok vykonan\u00fd spoza jeho hran\u00edc? A \u010do je najd\u00f4le\u017eitej\u0161ie: M\u00f4\u017ee subjekt, ktor\u00fd nadobudne \u0161tat\u00fat \u0161t\u00e1tu pod\u013ea Dohovoru z Montevidea, nadobudn\u00fa\u0165 aj pr\u00e1vo vies\u0165 kybernetick\u00fa vojnu popri konven\u010dnej vojne?<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Glob\u00e1lna legislat\u00edva sa sna\u017e\u00ed dr\u017ea\u0165 krok s realitou. Zatia\u013e \u010do technick\u00e9 a legislat\u00edvne rie\u0161enia \u010dasto zlyh\u00e1vaj\u00fa, medzin\u00e1rodn\u00e9 pr\u00e1vo, ako ho interpretuje napr\u00edklad Tallinnsk\u00fd manu\u00e1l 2.0, n\u00e1m aspo\u0148 pon\u00faka vod\u00edtko, ako riadi\u0165 spr\u00e1vanie \u0161t\u00e1tov v kybernetickom priestore. Je v\u0161ak d\u00f4le\u017eit\u00e9 poznamena\u0165, \u017ee tento manu\u00e1l je len n\u00e1zorom odborn\u00edkov a nie z\u00e1v\u00e4znou medzin\u00e1rodnou dohodou.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>Pripravme sa. Bud\u00facnos\u0165 konfliktov sa odohr\u00e1va na obrazovk\u00e1ch na\u0161ich zariaden\u00ed. Je \u010das prehodnoti\u0165, \u010do to znamen\u00e1 by\u0165 vystaven\u00fd \u00fatoku!<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Anglick\u00e1 verzia tohto textu bolo uverejnen\u00e1 na <a href=\"https:\/\/comeniusblog.flaw.uniba.sk\/2025\/10\/14\/trojan-horse-2-0-how-invisible-code-is-changing-the-rules-of-modern-warfare\/\" data-type=\"link\" data-id=\"https:\/\/comeniusblog.flaw.uniba.sk\/2025\/10\/14\/trojan-horse-2-0-how-invisible-code-is-changing-the-rules-of-modern-warfare\/\">comeniusblogu<\/a>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Autorka je \u0161tudentkou druh\u00e9ho ro\u010dn\u00edka magistersk\u00e9ho \u0161tud\u00edjneho programu Pr\u00e1vnickej fakulty, Univerzity Komensk\u00e9ho v Bratislave.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><sup>1<\/sup> Charta Organiz\u00e1cie Spojen\u00fdch n\u00e1rodov. \u010cl\u00e1nok 2 ods. 4, \u010cl\u00e1nok 51.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><sup>2<\/sup> AL-ARIDI, A. The virtual trojan horse in modern conflicts. In <em>Teis\u0117<\/em>. 2018. Vol.&nbsp;107, p.&nbsp;66\u201380.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><sup>3<\/sup> WAXMAN, M.C. Cyber-attacks as \u201cForce\u201d under UN charter article 2(4). In Scholarship Archive [online]. [cit.&nbsp;7.10.2025].&nbsp;Online:&nbsp;&lt;https:\/\/scholarship.law.columbia.edu\/faculty_scholarship\/847&gt;.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><sup>4<\/sup> EFRONY, D. &#8211; SHANY, Y. A rule book on the shelf? Tallinn Manual 2.0 on Cyberoperations and subsequent state practice. In American Journal of International Law. 2018. Vol.&nbsp;112, no.&nbsp;4, s.&nbsp;583\u2013657.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><sup>5<\/sup> SCHMITT, M. N. (Ed.).&nbsp;(2017).&nbsp;Tallinn manual 2.0 on the international law applicable to cyber operations.&nbsp;Cambridge University Press.&nbsp;ISBN: 9781107177222.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><sup>6<\/sup> Ibid. Pravidlo 92.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><sup>7<\/sup> Ibid. Pravidlo 1.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><sup>8<\/sup> \u201e<em>V tomto oh\u013eade Tallinn 2.0 neodzrkad\u013euje n\u00e1zory \u017eiadneho \u0161t\u00e1tu ani skupiny \u0161t\u00e1tov. IGE sa usilovne sna\u017eila by\u0165 objekt\u00edvna. To v\u0161ak neznamen\u00e1, \u017ee n\u00e1zory \u0161t\u00e1tov neboli zoh\u013eadnen\u00e9. Naopak, Holandsk\u00e9 ministerstvo zahrani\u010dn\u00fdch vec\u00ed sponzorovalo \u201eHaagsky proces\u201c, v r\u00e1mci ktor\u00e9ho sa 50 kraj\u00edn (vr\u00e1tane v\u0161etk\u00fdch piatich st\u00e1lych \u010dlenov Bezpe\u010dnostnej rady OSN) a medzin\u00e1rodn\u00fdch organiz\u00e1ci\u00ed zi\u0161lo v Haagu na troch stretnutiach, aby pos\u00fadili n\u00e1vrhy kapitol pr\u00edru\u010dky, vypo\u010duli si inform\u00e1cie od k\u013e\u00fa\u010dov\u00fdch \u010dlenov IGE a poskytli t\u00edmu \u00fastne a p\u00edsomn\u00e9 pripomienky.\u201c<\/em> In<em> SCHMITT, M. Tallinn Manual 2.0 on the International Law of Cyber Operations: What it is and isn\u2019t.&nbsp; Just Security [online]. 2017. [cit. 2025-10-09]. Online: &lt;https:\/\/www.justsecurity.org\/37559\/tallinn-manual-2-0-international-law-cyber-operations\/&gt;.&nbsp;<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><sup>9<\/sup>&nbsp; Dohovor z Montevidea o pr\u00e1vach a povinnostiach \u0161t\u00e1tov, \u010cl\u00e1nok 1.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><sup>10<\/sup> KRASS, C. Implementing integrated deterrence in the cyber domain: The role of lawyers. In Yale Journal of International Law [online]. 2023. [cit. 2025-10-07]. Online: &lt;https:\/\/yjil.yale.edu\/posts\/2023-08-29-implementing-integrated-deterrence-in-the-cyber-domain-the-role-of-lawyers&gt;.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><sup>11<\/sup> NIYOBUHUNGIRO, J. Challenges of state sovereignty and the right of state to self-defence: The case of cyber-attacks. In Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference Postgraduate School. 2018. s.&nbsp;668\u2013671.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Zabudnite na tanky a st\u00edha\u010dky. Najv\u00e4\u010d\u0161ou hrozbou v modern\u00fdch konfliktoch nie je vidite\u013en\u00e1 arm\u00e1da, ale \u201evirtu\u00e1lny tr\u00f3jsky k\u00f4\u0148\u201c \u2013 nevidite\u013en\u00fd k\u00f3d, ktor\u00fd men\u00ed pravidl\u00e1 vojnov\u00e9ho konfliktu. Vzh\u013eadom na to, \u017ee technick\u00fd ani legislat\u00edvny pokrok pr\u00e1va nie je v\u017edy mo\u017en\u00fd pri regul\u00e1cii rast\u00faceho po\u010dtu kybernetick\u00fdch \u00fatokov p\u00e1chan\u00fdch medzi \u0161t\u00e1tmi \u201est\u00edha\u0165\u201c, medzin\u00e1rodn\u00e9 pr\u00e1vo na\u010falej poskytuje usmernenia na [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":5,"featured_media":1022,"comment_status":"close","ping_status":"close","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_eb_attr":"","footnotes":""},"categories":[9],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-1021","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-blog"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/cusec.flaw.uniba.sk\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/1021","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/cusec.flaw.uniba.sk\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/cusec.flaw.uniba.sk\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/cusec.flaw.uniba.sk\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/5"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/cusec.flaw.uniba.sk\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=1021"}],"version-history":[{"count":4,"href":"https:\/\/cusec.flaw.uniba.sk\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/1021\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":1029,"href":"https:\/\/cusec.flaw.uniba.sk\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/1021\/revisions\/1029"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/cusec.flaw.uniba.sk\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/1022"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/cusec.flaw.uniba.sk\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=1021"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/cusec.flaw.uniba.sk\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=1021"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/cusec.flaw.uniba.sk\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=1021"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}